逻辑联结词

1. 常见逻辑关系词分类

2. 如何区分转折（concession）和对比（contrast）

contrast只是前后有概念上的相反

concession前后有逻辑关系，我们称之为因果的断裂，即因为某个原因没有倒出某个结果而产生的相反关系。

【经典：however和nevertheless 的区别】

nevertheless前后两句话必须有因果假设关系，而however则没有这样的要求。比如，大家可以比较一下下面两句话我们在中文中使用转折的时候的区别。

我爸爸很聪明，可是我很笨。

我同学很聪明，可是我很笨。

我们会发现在第一句中我爸爸聪明和我很笨是有一定的因果关系的，也就是说我爸爸聪明按道理来说我也应该聪明，但是我没有。在第二句话中我同学很聪明和我笨并没有任何因果关系，仅仅是简单的对比。

所以however既可以用于简单的事是对比，也可以用于含有因果的转折，而nevertheless则只能用于后者。

有逻辑相反常见代表词：nonetheless, nevertheless, despite this, in spite of that, although, though

无逻辑相反常见代表词：by contrast, on the other hand（多用于此种情况）, while（多用于此种情况）, conversely, whereas

两者通吃常见代表词：however, but

🌰 Photos taken with consumer digital cameras, smartphones, and tablets use only one “multichannel” color detector. Levay’s team, on the other hand, begins with scientific data from a set of single-channel, black-and-white images captured using different filters.

🌰 As the researchers noted, the quadrupeds typically live in trees and employ all four limbs in climbing. The bipeds, on the other hand, are far less arboreal. 【2018.10NA】

练习：判断下列句子前后是否有逻辑关系

1. The students were tired after the test, but were happy with their results.

2. Some refugees have found new homes, but others are still living in camps.

3. Luca tried to solve the math problem for two hours, but he could not find the answer.

答案：【1无 2有 3无】

👉例题1: This recognition did not mean that Johnson had no opinions about how words should be used. On the contrary, Johnson used the Dictionary to promote words he favored and to protest words he disliked. In the definition for “pictorial,” a term coined by Sir Thomas Browne, Johnson described the word as one “not adopted by other writers, but elegant and useful.” By the same token, the word “writative,” which Johnson had found in the letters of Alexander Pope, was not even granted a definition; Johnson simply wrote “A word of Pope’s coining: not to be imitated.”

1. NO CHANGE
2. On the other hand,
3. For example,
4. Nevertheless,

👉例题2: Analysis of other documents written by the men revealed that Madison frequently used the word “whilst”; nevertheless, Hamilton never incorporated this word into his prose.

1. NO CHANGE
2. in addition,
3. conversely,
4. ironically,

👉例题3: 参见OG第二套23-25题

👉例题4: Weiping says that to create a low pitch, he makes a deep hole. Nonetheless, a high pitch requires a shallow hole.

1. NO CHANGE
2. Conversely,
3. Otherwise,
4. Even so,

3. 补充关系和类比关系的区别

（1） 补充关系：典型代表词in addition, furthermore，moreover。补充关系的特点是前后两个信息一定不一样，是两个内容不同的细节或分论点，但是都是支持某一个claim的。

（2） 类比关系：典型代表词likewise， similarly，on a similar note, by the same token。类比关系前后两个信息也一定不是一个事情，但是他们一定要有逻辑上或内容上的相似性。逻辑上的相似性最难判断。

总而言之，补充关系是前后两个信息说的是一个事儿，而类笔试两个信息说两个事儿，但是有相似点。

4. 区分举例（for example）和因果（therefore）

感觉好像举例和因果是两个截然不同的关系，不应该混淆。而实际上，在很多文本中这两者带入文本都有可能感觉合适。比如，

我在认真准备SAT。比如，我买了一本SAT词汇书。

我在认真准备SAT。所以，我买了一本SAT词汇书。

怎么样，感受到了吧，这两句话既有可能是因果关系，又有可能是举例关系。那么他们区别在于：举例关系是前句万千做法之一，而因果关系是前句导出的唯一结论（如果句子只有一个所以的话）。

👉例题1: Zildjian’s next major opportunity for growth came when the company responded to the market in the United States, which, by the early twentieth century, had become the largest consumer of musical instruments in the world. The Zildjian company moved its base of operations from Turkey to the United States in 1929—just in time to capitalize on the Jazz Era. Because the needs of jazz composers and musicians differed from those of classical musicians, Zildjian worked with drummer Gene Krupa to adapt cymbals for a drum kit. For example, they designed some smaller cymbals, paired the downsized cymbals, and rigged them with a pedal mechanism to produce one of the most popularly used models of hi-hat cymbals in jazz ensembles.

1. NO CHANGE
2. However,
3. Therefore,
4. Instead,

5. 区分举例（for example) 和补充 (moreover）

举例不用再赘述了。需要注意补充的时候，也可能是一个example，只不过是补充前面已经说的一个example了。

👉例题1: Another organization leading the way in digitizing works of interest to students and scholars is the Folger Shakespeare Library in Washington, DC. The library’s Digital Image Collection includes over 80,000 images and detailed descriptions of theatre memorabilia, photographs, and letters that can be used to study Shakespeare’s life and productions of his plays. The Folger Digital Texts, moreover, offer all of Shakespeare’s poems and plays digitally, coded with information that can be used to search and index the texts. The texts and coding can be downloaded at no charge for noncommercial use.

A) NO CHANGE

B) however,

C) for example,

D) in particular,

👉例题2: Within their communities, arts organizations play a major role as consumers and employers. They purchase supplies, rent office and event spaces, and contract with vendors for services such as catering, all of which generate income for local businesses. Also, the arts industry employs a wide variety of workers—not just creative professionals such as painters, musicians, and actors, but also administrative staff, event planners, and maintenance workers. However, according to Suzan Jenkins of the Arts and Humanities Council of Montgomery County, Maryland, these jobs are likely to remain within the community. “More than most businesses, nonprofit arts and humanities organizations are rooted in their home area,” she notes. “[They are] employing people locally in jobs that cannot be shipped overseas.”

A) NO CHANGE

B) For instance,

C) Furthermore,

D) In other words,

6. 区分furthermore和besides

其实这两个单词我们一般不提区别，但是在2019年3月份的亚太考试中这两个偏偏遇到了一起，着实让大家有些头疼。首先，从词典的解释来说besides就是用furthermore来解释的，这似乎显示出两个单词是同义词（见韦氏词典）。所以这里面对于这两个单词的区别，我也仅仅是罗列一些我能够搜索到的可靠信息源。

第一，besides更偏向于口语，不够正式。在大卫弗格森的《我可能学的是假英语：英语、中式英语和偏误英语》这本书的第七章中谈到，besides和what’s more这两个单词都属于较为口语的用法，在正式的书写中建议使用furthermore，in addition。

第二，besides倾向于补充，体现出前面的信息是主说信息，后面的信息是次要信息。但是furthermore可以理解为一种并列，前后两个信息同等重要。这是我采访了几个native speaker之后他们谈及自己在使用两个单词时的普遍感受。

👉例题： Pollard’s engagement with issues of racial equality was not limited to commentary. Pollard also worked as a talent agent, improving the prospects of many African American entertainers who hired him to promote their careers and book their performances. Pollard began his career as an agent when he allowed a friend to turn vacant office space at the Independent News into a recording studio, dubbed Suntan Studios. Suntan provided African American musicians much-needed space to record and rehearse. At the studio, Pollard became acquainted with many performers, including Billie Holiday and Dizzy Gillespie, who became his clients. Pollard drew on the network of relationships he would cultivate as an athlete, particularly his friendship with the renowned actor and singer Paul Robeson (who, like Pollard, had begun his career as a football player), to find work for Holiday, Gillespie, and many others. By contrast, Pollard often secured engagements for his clients in venues that had previously been segregated. “I got hundreds and hundreds of acts into places where they never got [in] before,” he recalled in an interview with biographer John M. Carroll.

1. NO CHANGE
2. Furthermore,
3. Instead,
4. Besides,

7. 高难逻辑联结词的讲解和使用

1. though既可以做连词，也可以做副词。

Though做连词的时候连接句子： Though SVO, SVO.

🌰【2018.5亚太】Though the system is initially expensive and involves an expenditure of energy, CAES has proven to be reliable and economically viable in the long term.

Though做副词的时候等同于however。

🌰When movies were introduced at the turn of the twentieth century, some people viewed these motion pictures as novelties, no more than just moving photographs. Georges Méliès, though, saw the potential that film had as a medium for telling meaningful stories enlivened by dramatic effects.

👉例题1: “All my life,” the sculptor Constantin Brancusi remarked, “I have been seeking to capture the essence of flight.” More than any of Brancusi’s other works, the 1926 sculpture Bird in Space manages to achieve that aim. Bird in Space is a work of abstract art: it is not a readily recognizable representation of the bird in its title but rather a polished arc of bronze that calls to mind the animal’s graceful airborne motion. With its ends tapering into points, much of the slender 53-inch curve appears suspended in the air above its marble base. More than just a visually arresting sculpture, then, Bird in Space was responsible for changing how the US government recognizes art. 【2017.5北美】

1. NO CHANGE
2. at any rate,
3. though,
4. therefore,

答案：C

👉例题2: Surprisingly, though: studies show that presidential debates actually have little—even negligible—bearing on voters’ decisions at the polls. 【2017.10亚太】

1. NO CHANGE
2. though
3. though;
4. though,

答案：D

👉例题：Mapmakers are more than just GIS experts and designers though, they’re storytellers who craft narratives through the selection, arrangement, and juxtaposition of spatial information.

1. NO CHANGE
2. designer, though,
3. designers, though
4. designers, though:

2. In fact

SVO1. In fact, SVO2. SVO2 对于SVO1是一种递进、强调关系。

With sea otters to keep the population of sea urchins in check, kelp forests can flourish. In fact, even two years or less of sea otter presence can reduce the sea urchin threat in a coastal area (see chart).

Since one of the fastest growing library services is public access computer use, there is great demand for computer instruction. In fact, many librarians, whose training now includes courses on research and Internet search methods, teach classes in Internet navigation, database and software use, and digital information literacy.

Even those of us who work in disparate fields are able to share advice and help each other brainstorm. In fact, it’s the diversity of their talents and experiences that makes my coworking colleagues so valuable.

These health benefits have prompted Greek yogurt’s recent surge in popularity. In fact, Greek yogurt can be found in an increasing number of products such as snack food and frozen desserts.

👉例题1: Electronic health record systems can actually reduce errors by, for instance, cross-referencing drug information to provide doctors with automatic warnings about possible adverse drug interactions. Likewise, at Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston, Massachusetts, serious medical errors decreased by 55 percent after an electronic record system was implemented.

1. NO CHANGE
2. Still,
3. In this case,
4. In fact,

答案：D

👉例题2: Due to their ability to respire both on land and in the water, mudskippers have a significant advantage over other fish and even over some land-based animals. Bimodal respiration makes it possible for mudskippers to live in areas subject to drastic changes in water level and chemical composition. Despite this, mudskippers thrive in intertidal regions that are marked by regular, cyclical changes in water levels, adjusting their respiration depending on how much water is available.

1. NO CHANGE
2. Overall,
3. As an addition benefit,
4. In fact,

答案:D。

解析：前面一句说在剧烈变化的area是可以live in的，即生活下来。而后面说在剧烈变化的区域可以thrive in，繁荣发展。体现了语意上的递进。注意这里的drastic changes in water level and chemical composition 与regular, cyclical changes in water levels是一个意思。

3. after all - 本质上SVO. After all, SVO. 是一个因果关系，后因前果。

【PSAT】People often wonder how Stanton takes such professional-looking photographs without any formal training. After all, he is merely a young man walking the streets with a fancy camera when he approaches.

4. Instead - 连接句子的时候一般前面的句子是一个negative statement. 与on the contrary 和rather类似。

【PSAT】Some detractors argue that it’s not necessary to go to what they consider the extremes required for a living building; instead, they advocate taking small steps toward increased energy efficiency.

【2019.6北美】The audience does not sit in one place. Instead, visitors are admitted to the empty hotel one at a time.

5. To this end（to these ends）表示为了达到这个目的，说明后面的做了可以得到前面的结果。

Over time, Slow Food has broadened its mission to focus on food that is good, clean, and fair for all. Members assert that food should be flavorful, carrying the properties of a particular region; it should be raised using environmentally sustainable practices that preserve biodiversity; and it should be accessible to all without exploiting the labors of those who produced it. To these ends, Slow Food runs programs that support small-scale producers in marketing regional foods in a world where food corporations threaten to drive them out of the marketplace and homogenize food choices.

6. Still - 连接两个句子表示转折： SVO. Still, SVO.

Han Bing is fat. Still, I love him.

🌰One has to consume more caffeine to achieve the same effect and can experience other symptoms upon ceasing. Still, caffeine’s potential health benefits appear to be enough to justify or even endorse a habit equivalent to a cup or two of regular brewed coffee per day.

7. In particular的本质就是for example

🌰Mudskippers, just like other fish, spend significant portion of life on land. Their ability to thrive out of the water as well as in it stems largely from certain physical adaptations that are generally not observed in other fish. In particular, bimodal respiration—the ability to acquire oxygen using gills or through wet skin—sets mudskippers apart from their purely water-based counterparts.

8. accordingly的本质是因果关系

👉例题1: This practice of continued education, also known as professional development, benefits not only employees but also their employers. Accordingly, meaningful professional development is a shared responsibility: it is the responsibility of employers to provide useful programs, and it is also the responsibility of employees to take advantage of the opportunities offered to them.

1. NO CHANGE
2. Nevertheless,
3. Regardless,
4. Similarly,

答案： A

9. rather

正式考察rather是2018.10的亚太第一题。rather这个单词总给大家有一种相反的感觉。其实，rather的用法比我们想得要复杂得多。

9.1 rather连接两个句子

如果句子的结构式【SVO1. Rather, SVO2. 】一般SVO1是否定句，SVO2是一个肯定句。SVO2其实是对SVO1否定的反面进行肯定。这里rather我们可以翻译成【与之相反的】。这个类型用法的连接词还有instead, on the contrary。

👉例题1： Creating a sense of novelty and wonder, a strange, otherworldly sound rings out: the sound of Martians. In the 1951 science-fiction film The Day the Earth Stood Still, composer Bernard Herrmann used a peculiar, relatively new instrument called the theremin to give voice to these aliens. Previously used in thriller films, the electronic instrument was used to produce sounds that many compare to high-pitched shrieks or wails. However, the theremin was not originally invented for film or to create a sense of unease; for example, its inventor, Leon Theremin, envisioned the device as a substitute for traditional instruments like the violin.

1. NO CHANGE
2. rather,
3. namely,
4. nonetheless,

答案：B

👉例题2: Maps such as those in Infinite City don’t necessarily show us how to travel from point A to point B. Likewise, they create imaginative, nuanced portraits of the spaces we inhabit.

1. NO CHANGE
2. Rather,
3. Furthermore,
4. For example,

答案： B

9.2 rather修饰形容词

当rather修饰形容词的时候，我们通常翻译成“相当地”，但是在中文中相当地是一个程度很强烈的加强，但其实rather的英文解释中这样写到“more than a little, but less than very,“ 也就是比有点多，但是并没有非常。比如，He is rather famous.想说的是还是挺出名的，但是并没有十分出名。rather这个词意的细微差别在ACT考试中曾经出现过。

👉例题2: He was determined to win, despite being rather unknown as an athlete.

If the writer were to delete the word "rather" from the sentence, the sentence would primarily lose a word that:

1. implies that some people were already aware of Mills’s talent.
2. helps describe Mills’s approach to motivating himself for a race.
3. explains why Mills decided to take on the challenge of running in the Olympics.
4. emphasizes that Mills needed more training before he could win the race.

答案：A

这道题目正确答案是A选项，当我们说rather unknown时，我们的程度应该是介于a little 和very之间的，所以如果加上rather就是说他的确不出名但是也有一点点小名气。如果删除了rather，就完全变成了他没有名气。

9.3 or rather - 更精确地说

or rather 在朗文词典的解释为：used before correcting something that you have said, or giving more specific information。因此遇到or rather时，我们翻译成to be more specific 即可。以下例句供大家理解：

It was really my doing, or rather my drawings, that had brought us to this brink.

9.4 rather修饰动词

rather修饰动词表示preferably，更倾向于，更愿意。通常会和would搭配，即would rather连用。比如，I would rather go to movie theaters.

9.5 rather than

高中的时候我们就经常背诵prefer to do rather than do. 这里的rather than相当于一个连词（conj.），我们直接可以理解为NOT就可以了。rather than也可以当介词，等于instead of

🌰 Forward-thinking employers recognize the importance of investing in the employees they have rather than hiring new staff. 【此处rather than 是连词】

🌰 The plaintiffs divulged that, rather than appointing a qualified engineer or architect to oversee the tank’s construction, the company had appointed an accountant to do the job.【此处rather than是介词短语】

这就是rather最常见的几种用法，你学会了吗？

10. On the contrary 和 in contrast的区别

我非常喜欢这位教授的解释：

The phrases “on the contrary” and “to the contrary” are used to reply to an opposing point. Your friend tells you she is moving to New York and you express surprise because you thought she hated big cities. She replies, “On the contrary, I’ve always wanted to live in an urban area.”

When a distinction is being made that does not involve opposition of this sort, “in contrast” is appropriate. “In New York, you don’t need a car. In Los Angeles, in contrast, you can’t really get along without one, though you won’t need a snow shovel.”

Here’s a simple test: if you could possibly substitute “that’s wrong” the phrase you want is “on the contrary” or “to the contrary.” If not, then use “in contrast.”

也就是说当我们用on the contrary的时候，后面的观点其实是加强前面一整句的话。比如这位教授的例子中，她的朋友不恨大城市，和她的朋友特别想在大城市生活，这两句话其实是一个意思。

同时这位教授给出的这个simple test非常有效，大家以后就这样试一试吧！

11. In turn 进而。表示前面某个事情又导致了一个新的结果。

🌰 Using robots has helped many manufacturers run more efficient factories and lower the costs of making products. This in turn has allowed such companies to expand their businesses, which has created more jobs. 【2019.12 NA】